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Analog Devices

analogdevices

A simple touch can actually destroy or seriously damage an electrical device. Many objects, including the human body, can accumulate static electricity. By touching the external connectors of a device, one can damage its sensitive integrated circuit. The voltage of such charges can reach several thousand volts, which is deadly to sensitive components. Protecting devices from such events is an important challenge for electronics developers. In this article, we will discuss the sources and nature of electrostatic discharge events and electrical overstress. We will also talk about ESD and EOS failures, as well as the methods of EOS and ESD protection. What is ESD? ESD stands for electrostatic discharge. Many materials can conduct electricity and accumulate an electric charge. It happens due to triboelectric charging (friction between materials) or electrostatic induction. Whenever this happens, an object builds up a stationary charge (static electricity) on its surface. When this object is placed too close to another electrically charged object or material, the voltage difference causes the electric current to flow between them until the charge balance is restored. Thus, one can define electrostatic discharge as a momentary electric current flow between two electrically charged materials or objects which is caused by contact, an electrical short, or dielectric breakdown. During an electrostatic discharge event, the charges are redistributed, and the balance is restored. Static electricity may seem like an everyday occurrence. But the voltage of an electrostatic charge can reach several thousand volts, which is a serious hazard to components. In modern microelectronics, everything is becoming smaller and thinner, which leads to high ESD sensitivity. As a result, even an overvoltage of 10V can damage integrated circuits. For comparison, when a person walks over a carpet, the static potential on his shoes can reach 35,000V. Electrostatic discharge events threaten electronic devices both during the production phase and during operation. , the damage caused by such an event can cost between a few cents and several hundred dollars per device. In the case of mass production, a whole production batch can be regarded as defective. And that’s thousands and millions of dollars. According to EOS/ESD Association, inc. ESD vs EOS Electrical overstress is another phenomenon similar to electrostatic discharge. In fact, engineers often use these terms interchangeably. Both these events can be defined as the exposure of an electrical device or its components to a current or voltage that exceeds the device’s maximum ratings. However, they are slightly different. An ESD event: - lasts for a very short time (nanoseconds); - features a moderate peak current; - and reaches extremely high voltages (up to several kilovolts). An EOS event: - lasts for a longer time (milliseconds and sometimes even seconds); - features a higher peak current; - but reaches lower voltages (up to dozens or hundreds of volts). Two graphs showing the difference between an EOS and an ESD event. EOS can have many different sources, such as excessive currents or voltages, power-on/off transients, etc., while the sources of ESD are electrostatic only. From this perspective, electrostatic discharge events can be regarded as a subset of electrical overstress. Imagine a device plugged into a 110V socket. If lightning strikes the electric substation powering this socket, the device will receive 400V for a few milliseconds. That’s an EOS event. If a person is trying to plug a USB cable into his smartphone and an electrostatic charge (from his body or clothes) strikes the USB port, the port will receive 1,500V instead of the standard 5V. That’s an ESD event. What Damage Can Electrostatic Discharge Do to Electronics? A powerful electrostatic discharge can cause various failures. The ESD damages and their severity depends on several factors, one of which is how the charge is dissipated to the topology of the integrated circuit. When an electrostatic discharge event occurs, the static charge (that reaches very high voltages) causes a high peak current. Although the event lasts for a very short time, it is often enough to cause burnout if the device is not properly protected. The amount of heat generated during the event is enough to fuse the interconnecting links wires or the components in the chip. Sometimes, components or connections are not destroyed completely. In such cases, the IC will still function with no noticeable performance drop. Sometimes, a partially damaged IC will continue working, but its performance will slightly drop. It often happens to analog devices. In other cases, this event can cause damage due to overvoltage rather than heat. High voltages can breakdown insulating oxide layers. It can either destroy the IC completely or do partial damage to it with no noticeable performance drop. Detecting ESD damage can be difficult. In this case, you can see the damage only with a microscope. Image source: https://nepp.nasa.gov/index.cfm/6095 Disregarding these dangers can lead to costly consequences. can be divided into four types. The consequences of an ESD event Soft failure In this case, the event causes no physical damage to the IC. Instead, it causes the system to malfunction or stop working. Nevertheless, such failures can be corrected in the system, or you may simply need to reboot it. Data loss In some cases, the event doesn’t cause physical damage but corrupts data, software, or firmware installed on the device. For example, if lightning strikes too close to a house, it can result in full data loss on the hard drive of the personal computer in the house. Catastrophic failure A catastrophic failure is permanent damage that disrupts the work of the device completely. It happens when an electrostatic charge melts metal, breakdowns junctions or insulating oxide layers. Latent defects As mentioned above, an electrostatic discharge can cause a partial degradation of the IC, but it will continue working. This damage type is referred to as latent defects. On the one hand, such defects are not critical. On the other hand, detecting them is very difficult. Moreover, sooner or later, these defects will lead to critical failures. Some manufacturers are known for producing low-reliability devices and equipment. Often, it happens due to poor antistatic protection used at the plant, which leads to frequent ESD events and latent defects. Devices can be classified by their ESD immunity level. ESD Association 2.0 Handbook is used for defining a device’s ESD performance in manufacturing environments. But for real-life situations, developers commonly refer to the IEC 61000-4-2 standard which defines four standard ESD circuit protection levels. Common ESD protection methods Since electrostatics discharges can be deadly to electrical devices, it is not surprising that combating ESD in electronics is vital for their nominal operation. Certain protection measures can work for electrical overstress as well. For example, , LEDs and other electronic components can be protected with overvoltage protection devices and current limiters (TVS diodes, fuses, etc.). Nevertheless, such measures are usually not effective in preventing EOS damage. Although ESD and EOS are similar in nature and consequences, the reasons causing them are different. according to Osram Licht AG EOS is regarded as an unlikely event which should not happen under normal operating conditions. Most EOS protective measures are taken at the design phase: by designing the device with a higher Absolute Maximum Rating. It will make the device less vulnerable to electrical overstress but will not protect it if the voltage/current exceeds these limits. As for ESD protection, three groups of measures can be used. Protected Working Area & ESD-Control Tools The first thing one should do to protect a device from static electricity is to establish an ESD-Protected Area. In an EPA, all objects, surfaces, people, and devices are linked to ground. This way, their potentials are kept at the same level. Creating such areas is the first line of defense against ESD in electronics manufacturing. The basic elements of such areas are: an antistatic mat (1), ground cable (2), grounding plug (3), ESD loop (4), and ESD wrist strap (5). A properly organized working area keeps electrical charges on all surfaces at the same level, which prevents ESD events. This is the simplest EPA one can build to provide a minimum level of protection. But if there’s a need to minimize the risk even further, one can build much larger and more complicated ESD-protection areas. Engineers can also use a variety of additional tools and devices designed for coping with ESD in electronics. Ionizers are filtration and recirculation devices that generate positive and negative ions around the sensitive equipment you want to protect. This reduces the chances of an ESD event. They also remove airborne particulates that can cause friction and static charge build-up. ESD test equipment is used to measure the level of electrostatic discharge for a particular object, surface, or person. This way, one can make sure the ESD stays within acceptable levels. Antistatic bags and ESD packaging boxes are used to store PCBs or devices. They don’t allow static electricity to build up, providing constant protection. Electronics designers can also use antistatic gloves, shoes, ESD-safe tools, ESD tape, and other equipment and tools. A properly organized EPA will protect electronics from electrostatic discharge events during the working process. But engineers should also ensure the device will not suffer electrostatic discharge events while in operation. One of the ways to do it is to use overvoltage protection devices. Mounting Overvoltage Protection Devices on the PCB Electronics designers have to provide proper protection from various situations: lightning strikes that induce high-voltage spikes, transients that cause overvoltage, and electrostatic discharges. Voltage limiters can prevent dielectric breakdowns. There are many types of overvoltage protection devices, including ESD suppressors, varistors, Zener diodes, and similar components. But most commonly, engineers use transient voltage suppressor (TVS) diodes. TVS diodes are placed in parallel with the circuit that requires protection. Under normal conditions, a TVS has a very high resistance. Therefore, the current doesn’t flow through it. However, when the induced voltage exceeds the avalanche breakdown voltage, the diode’s resistance drops. As a result, it shunts the excess energy generated by the overvoltage event to ground, not allowing the current to flow to the integrated circuit under protection. When the voltage drops to the normal level, the diode resets. The following scheme explains how the ESD current flows through the TVS diode array to ground. Under normal conditions, the resistance of the TVS diode array doesn’t let the current flow through it to ground unless the voltage exceeds a certain level. ESD protection devices must be placed at all external connections and sometimes on human input devices (for example, keyboard keys or buttons). These are the “gaps” through which static electricity can enter the circuit. One of the projects our team worked on was a medical device with multiple external connections. The team had to protect all of them. In the scheme below, you can see a TVS diode placed in parallel with the protected circuit after a battery connector. The team used the NSPU3051N2T5G unidirectional ESD and surge protection device here. It protects the circuit from possible electrostatic discharges that can be generated by the human body or clothes when a person replaces the battery. If an ESD event occurs, the diode will shunt the excess voltage to ground, not letting the current flow to the circuit. The TVS diode (TVS1) here protects the circuit (U4) from a possible electrostatic discharge coming from the battery connector (J1). Another TVS diode was placed at the USB port of the device. The capacitors here protect the circuit from low-frequency EMI and play no role in ESD protection. Usually, USB ports are protected with specialized TVS diode arrays – for example, D3V3F4U6S-7. But in this case, one TVS was enough. Typically, engineers use TVS diodes designed specifically for USB ports, but in this case, the team offered a custom solution. The medical device also had several connectors for ECG electrodes which can be the sources of static electricity too. Note that the U6 operational amplifier used in this scheme has an output pin (1) with very low resistance. It means that the amplifier can work as another TVS diode. For that reason, the circuit is also protected with a resistor (R15) that reduces the residual pulses that were not stopped by the TVS protection. ECG electrodes can be another ESD source because they contact directly with the human body. Sometimes, it’s impractical to protect each and every connection of your device. Therefore, we provided protection only for the telephone line. Instead of a TVS diode, we used a TISP4350 overvoltage protector: this series was designed specifically for overvoltages on telecom lines. Compared to TVS diode arrays, TISP4 provides a somewhat universal protection from both ESD events and overvoltage events of other origins. The choice of protection device depends on a number of factors. Different models and types are designed for different voltage ranges, working voltages, event duration, response time, etc. Naturally, an electronics designer chooses components with these parameters in mind. Size is another important metric, as large components cannot be used in small devices. And of course, our team takes into account prices and availability as well. ESD Protection Circuit Design When it comes to protecting sensitive circuits from ESD, design is another effective tool that works in tandem with ESD protection devices. Electrostatic discharge protection is based on the TVS’ ability to shut electrostatic current to ground. Therefore, when designing a PCB, ESD protection can be achieved if the path to ground has as low impedance as possible. 1. Optimizing impedances around the TVS All PCB components and traces have parasitic inductances. In a typical protection scheme, there are four of them: the inductance between the ESD Source and the TVS array (L1 and L2), the inductance between the TVS and ground (L3), and the inductance between the TVS and the protected integrated circuit. ESD current can be forced to ground only if L4 is larger than L1-3. The picture below shows the PCB layout we designed for one of our projects. As you can see, this part of the board has a USB port. To protect the FT231X UART (U1), we placed a USBLC6-4SC6 ESD suppressor (U2) on the path between it and the port. There are two things worth noticing here. - The suppressor (U2) is placed closer to the ESD Source (USB port). As a result, the inductance L4 becomes much larger than L1, which forces possible ESD current to the TVS. - The suppressor is placed directly on the path from the ESD Source to the Protected IC, which completely removes L2. 2. Limiting EMI from electrostatic discharge An electrostatic discharge is a fast transient that causes electromagnetic interference. An electrostatic discharge event generates a rapidly changing electric field that can couple onto the nearby circuits. It can cause undesired voltages on unintended circuits. The traces between the ESD Source and the TVS are the main source of EMI. Therefore, the team didn’t place any unprotected circuits in this area. Another way to limit EMI is to use straight and short routes because corners radiate EMI. In this case, using straight lines was impossible. Instead, we used corners curved by 45°, which is acceptable. 3. Using VIAs properly In multilayer PCBs, VIAs can work as needless traces with parasitic inductances. In the picture below, the ESD Source and the Protected IC are located on the same layer, while the TVS is on another layer. Here, the VIA works as L2, causing the ESD current to branch between the TVS and the IC. That’s why this layout must be avoided. In this case, a portion of the ESD current will go to the Protected IC despite the TVS being on its path. Ideally, the ESD Source and the TVS should be placed on the same layer, like in the picture below. This way, the ESD current goes to the TVS protection pin before moving through the VIA to the protected circuit. In this case, the TVS stands directly on the path from the ESD Source to the Protected Circuit. In this particular PCB design, the ESD Source (USB connector) has two traces on two different layers. Placing them on the same level as the TVS wasn’t possible. However, the team used an acceptable layout design. We had a reverse situation: the TVS and the Protected IC are placed on the same layer, but the ESD Sources (two traces coming from the USB) are on different layers. Despite that, it’s an example of the proper use of VIAs, as the TVS protection pin will receive the ESD current before letting it flow to the IC. If the ideal layout cannot be implemented, an acceptable compromise is to force the ESD current to the TVS in the following way: Although this routing isn’t perfect for ESD protection, it’s a good alternative if the designer has no other options. Conclusion An electrostatic discharge event can be caused by seemingly harmless actions. Nevertheless, ESD damage can be very serious. In a best-case scenario, one will have to reboot the device. But in the worst case, the event will lead to a catastrophic failure. Electronics designers use multiple methods of protecting devices from ESD. First of all, using antistatic tools and equipment guarantees protection when engineers work on the device. These tools are designed to discharge static electricity to ground and not let electrostatic charges accumulate on the surfaces within the working area. To protect the device during operation, designers use various ESD protection devices. The most commonly used components are TVS diodes. These devices shunt the electrostatic current to ground whenever the input voltage reaches a certain threshold. And finally, one can limit the effects of the event with proper PCB design techniques. The goal here is to reduce the impedance between the ESD Source and the TVS diode array as much as possible to avoid the ESD current flowing to the protected integrated circuit. Proper protection against electrostatic discharge events improves the reliability of devices, thus saving thousands of dollars for companies offering new products. This article was first published here.

Designing Electronics To Avoid Electrostatic Discharge

As I can see, electronic design companies are far more undervalued by the media than the software ones. But the fact remains that the market is fairly large and continues to snowball in growth. According to the , the size of the electronic design services, combined with contract manufacturing, has reached almost $400 bln in 2018 and will grow by up to more than $650 bln by 2025. Grand View Research comprehensive report To overcome this grave injustice, I’ve prepared my research on electronic design companies that are working on a contractual basis. Let me first explain how I selected them. Trustworthy Electronic Design Services: Selection Criteria The electronic design services domain is comprised of a relatively large amount of companies from around the globe. But have no illusions: not all of them are trustworthy. That’s why all the companies from the list below: Have at least ten years of history (the youngest one established in 2009); Covering a variety of services (instead of extremely specialized companies with a single focus); Acts as an official partner of at least one or at least one . semiconductor company from the top 50 member of the Semiconductor Industry Association The list of electronic design companies as follows: Promwad Website: https://www.promwad.com/ Location: Vilnius, Lithuania Founded: 2004 No. of employees: 51 — 200 Services: electronic product design, hardware development, PCB design, FPGA design, embedded software development, automotive electronics development The Promwad electronics design house was founded in 2004 to create new products for their clients. Since that time, the company has opened new offices in the USA and EU and has successfully finished 300+ projects. The number of devices manufactured under the design they made has surpassed by 3 mln. Among the noteworthy clients of Promwad is Qoobi B.V., and the device Qoobi ONE, where Promwad took part, received the in the category “Best of the Best.” Among the others are Parrot, Prestigio, Lapka (acquired by Airbnb), and various famous businesses. What’s to the reason why I included it to the listing, Promwad is an official partner of top 50 members NXP, Texas Instruments, STMicroelectronics, Fujitsu, and Analog Devices. Red Dot Award in 2019 Variscite Website: https://www.variscite.com/ Location: Lod, Israel Founded: 2003 No. of employees: 51 — 200 Services: SOM development and manufacturing, board design, OEM manufacturing The main focus of this Israeli-born company is Systems on Modules design, development, as well as manufacturing. Since 2003, Variscite has passed the 1 mln of shipped SoM devices milestone. Variscite’s business is mostly product-oriented. That’s why their clients aren’t detailed out. What is clear, is that the company is a with early access to their ARM-based i.MX8 family solutions. And it is a reason why the company won its seat here. key partner of NXP Semiconductors/Freescale TOPIC Embedded Systems Website: https://topic.nl/en Location: Best, Netherlands Founded: 1996 No. of employees: 51 — 200 Services: embedded software development, hardware development, FPGA development, technical consulting With more than 20 years of experience, TOPIC is a trusted European embedded solutions developer. The company focuses on FPGA, digital hardware, and embedded software projects. The domain expertise includes healthcare, robotics, aerospace and defense, automotive, transport and logistics, as well as semiconductors industries. Along with the services, the company has its products. Among these include systems on modules, some ready-made building blocks, as well as operating systems for FPGA and SoC. TOPIC is a , a chartered member of SIA, which made it possible to enlist the company here. premium partner of Xilinx DesignLinx Hardware Solutions Website: https://www.designlinxhs.com/ Location: Nashua, New Hampshire, USA Founded: 2009 No. of employees: 11 — 50 Services: FPGA design, embedded software development, ITAR compliance, board-level design, AWS/AI/ML support The DesignLinx Hardware Solutions company has a keen focus on FPGA design services, as well as on several other niche ones. The company is veteran-owned, which makes it well adapted to defense business orders. Defense Logistics Agency is one of the leading partners of the DesignLinx, as well as some other government and private companies. It has been a of the Xilinx Alliance since 2011, as well as an official partner of both Intel and Analog Devices. As you can see, DesignLinx is worthy of being here. premier member L-CARD Website: https://en.lcard.ru/ Location: Moscow, Russia Founded: 1987 No. of employees: 51 — 200 Services: modular DAQ systems, ADC/DAC boards, fuel measuring sensors, R&D outsourcing, OEM manufacturing The L-CARD company has a rather long history for a Russian one. The official year of establishment is 1987, however, the laboratory was established in 1980 as a part of a state-owned research institute. The main focus is the development and manufacturing of measuring equipment but the design and development services branch is also here. The electronic equipment designed by L-CARD is used by 3,000+ clients globally. For example, its DAQ system is installed on the . The only partnership that meets our criteria is Apple’s MFi licensing program membership as an official developer of iPhone/iPad-compatible devices. Swedish MAX IV synchrotron Hectronic Website: https://hectronic.se/ Location: Uppsala, Sweden Founded:  1989 No. of employees: 11 — 50 Services: embedded solutions, embedded Systems, COM modules, Qseven, ARM modules, COM express This Swedish company has more than 30 years of history in embedded product development services. Moreover, it acts as a manufacturer, as well.  Hectronic is a part of , and among their clients are ABB, Saab/Scania, Ericsson, and Atlas Copco. discoverIE Group PLC The industries in which the company has strong expertise include maritime and offshore, transportation, medical, defense, industrial automation, as well as telecommunications. The company wins millions of dollars worth of contracts pretty regularly. Among the official partners are Mitsubishi Electric, AMD, Intel, NXP, and Texas Instruments. RT-RK Website: https://www.rt-rk.com/ Location: Novi Sad, Serbia Founded: 1991 No. of employees: 1001 — 5000 Services: hardware product development, FPGA rapid prototyping, embedded software development, home automation services RT-RK positions itself not only as a company but as a Serbian national research institute. Not only national but international: it has offices in Bosnia and Croatia, as well. The company has a significant history as the near-shore development partner for Cirrus Logic and Marvell. This is the main reason to call RT-RK trustworthy here. The company has a rather wide focus, including embedded, TV, automotive, home appliances, DSP, defense, FPGA, and even UX. It constantly participates in major tech exhibitions like . CES Softeq Website: https://www.softeq.com/ Location: Houston, Texas, USA Founded: 1997 No. of employees: 201 — 500 Services: hardware design, embedded systems development, custom software development Softeq is a full-stack development company in both the hardware and software fields. With that said, the majority of their finished projects are software-related. The list of clients includes Coca-Cola, Nvidia, HP, Epson, and other famous enterprises. For many years, the company works in close . This fact made it possible to include Softeq in our list. partnership with SK Hynix According to the company website, its key domains are consulting, product development, and digital strategy. What’s mostly covered in the hardware-related industry are consumer electronics. Among the most eye-catching projects is the Hunity curved wrist screen smartphone.

Top Electronic Design Service Companies You Should Consider in 2020

RF Tunable Filters Market: Introduction Transparency Market Research delivers key insights on the global RF tunable . In terms of revenue, the global RF tunable filters market is estimated to expand at a CAGR of 8.3% during the forecast period, owing to numerous factors, regarding which TMR offers thorough insights and forecasts in its report on the global RF tunable filters market filters market The global RF tunable filters market is broadly affected by several factors, including rising adoption of MEMS-based tunable RF filters. RF Tunable Filters Market: Dynamics RF tunable filters are electronic components used to allow or prevent selected signals or frequencies in order to eliminate noise or pass-through of unwanted signals. The radio frequency spectrum includes the set of frequencies of the electromagnetic framework, ranging from 30 Hz to 300 GHz. It is divided into several ranges, or bands, and given labels, such as low frequency (LF), medium frequency (MF), and high frequency (HF), for easier identification. The rapid expansion of 5G networks fuels the demand for new and higher frequency bands with high performance standards for RF filters. The proliferation of 4G LTE networks, increased adoption of new 5G networks, and Wi-Fi have raised the usage of RF bands that smartphones and other mobile devices support. The telecommunication industry is developing new resonating structures to filter unnecessary interference signals at these high frequencies. In September 2021, Resonant developed new XBAR resonator technology for the optimization of RF filters used in 5G and Wi-Fi networks. Therefore, an increase in the implementation of 5G across the world and bandwidth demands of 5G networks are anticipated to offer lucrative opportunities for new generation of RF filters, which, in turn, needs new generation of tunable RF filters delivering throughput and providing for signal coexistence. In June 2019, China granted commercial licenses to four state-owned telecom giants namely, China Telecom, China Mobile, China Unicom, and China Radio, and Television to start rolling out 5G services. The government has aimed to make Beijing a leading global city in setting up superfast wireless networks amid tensions with the U.S. over technology and trade. Thus, rising implementation of 5G across the world is expected to fuel the RF tunable filters market. RF Tunable Filters Market: Prominent Regions The RF tunable filters market in North America is expected to expand during the forecast period, owing to the presence of key market players, technological advancements, and expansion of the aerospace and defense, and telecommunication sectors in the region. North America has the presence of robust expanding economies, including the U.S., Canada, and Mexico. Industrial expansion coupled with the presence of a well-established supply chain network catering to a wide range of industries, including aerospace, healthcare, defense, telecommunication, energy & power, and mining is expected to propel the demand for RF tunable filters semiconductor substrates; consequently, driving the global RF tunable filters market. The U.S. accounted for a prominent share, in terms of value, among all countries. The RF tunable filters market in North America is projected to expand further due to a significant rise in the demand from aerospace and defense industry. The North America market is estimated to reach a value of US$ 77.28 Mn by 2031. The RF tunable filters market in Europe is likely to expand at a notable CAGR of 8.5% during the forecast period, owing to the presence of enough number of players manufacturing RF tunable filters in the region. RF Tunable Filters Market: Key Players Key players operating in the global RF tunable filters market are K&L Microwave, Analog Devices, Inc., Benchmark Lark Technology, Pasternack, Smiths Interconnect, Anatech Electronics, Inc., EXFO Inc., Netcom, Inc., Lorch Microwave, Pole/Zero Corporation, and MtronPTI. TMR Latest News Publication: ·  Semiconductor IP Market: https://www.prnewswire.co.uk/news-releases/growing-digitalization-trend-in-many-industries-drives-striking-demand-avenues-in-semiconductor-ip-market-tmr-800607263.html · Fiber Optic Connectors Market: https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/pandemic-trends-to-help-fiber-optic-connectors-market-develop-at-8-1-cagr-over-forecast-period-of-2019-to-2027--notes-tmr-301172733.html About Us Transparency Market Research is a global market intelligence company, providing global business information reports and services. Our exclusive blend of quantitative forecasting and trends analysis provides forward-looking insight for thousands of decision makers. Our experienced team of Analysts, Researchers, and Consultants, use proprietary data sources and various tools and techniques to gather, and analyze information. Our data repository is continuously updated and revised by a team of research experts, so that it always reflects the latest trends and information. With a broad research and analysis capability, Transparency Market Research employs rigorous primary and secondary research techniques in developing distinctive data sets and research material for business reports.

Filters Market Projected To Garner Significant Revenues By 2031

The days of “dumb” analog devices are at an end. These days, everything has to be “smart” and a part of the Internet-of-Things (IoT). Digital devices are now designed to connect and communicate with each other and be controllable remotely using smart phones. Enterprises are all jumping on the bandwagon, installing smart lights for their offices and using connected sensors and robots in their factories. Research firm Gartner estimates that will be in use this year. By 2021, the number is expected to reach 25 billion. However, this increasing rate of adoption is only giving rise to more cybersecurity concerns. Given its varied use cases, enterprise IoT can open up some worrisome vectors of attacks that cybercriminals can exploit. 14.2 billion connected devices In its , Bulletproof cited that the popularity of smart appliances has contributed to the growing risks of attacks like data harvesting. IoT security provider FirstPoint also identified that hackers are nowcapable of launching to disrupt IoT devices that rely on such signals to transmit and stream their data. And, even today, security firm Imperva has found that the notorious IoT-reliant Mirai malware is still actively being used to carry out massive . 2019 cybersecurity report cellular connectivity-based attacks distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks Organizations keen on adopting IoT must understand the cybersecurity risks that the technology may bring. This way, they can adjust their respective security strategies to accommodate IoT as potential vector for attacks. Threats Attackers can exploit IoT devices in a variety of ways. Among the potential attacks against enterprise infrastructure may include: Denial of Service. IoT devices can play a couple of roles when it comes to denial-of-service (DoS) attacks. Firstly, IoT devices can be hijacked to carry out DoS attacks. In the case of Mirai DDoS attacks, IoT devices such as webcams and routers are infected by malware. Once infected, these devices now become part of a botnet that can be used to launch DDoS attacks against any network. Secondly, IoT devices can also be the target of DoS attacks. In an industrial setting, IoT devices often come in the form of sensors and trackers that send out data in real time to control systems. Cellular-based DoS attacks can prevent data to be sent out, disrupting operations. Downtime caused by these attacks can be costly for any enterprise. Breaches. IoT devices may gather and process sensitive data which are prime targets for cybercriminals to steal. Enterprise data may contain valuable proprietary data which can be used to extort companies or be sold on the black market. Hackers may also steal personal identifiable information and biometric data from IoT devices. Biometric scanners, for instance, process facial recognition and fingerprint data. Given that these data are also popularly used to secure other devices such as mobile phones, hackers may be able to use them to compromise these systems. Hackers can easily intercept information from the devices themselves or during transmission. They can also targetvthe servers or storage services to which IoT data is transmitted. Espionage and Sabotage. Enterprises are now popular targets for espionage and sabotage. American tech companies, for example, are known to be the focus of as part of cyberwarfare. Attacks on large enterprises can be significant enough to affect the economy. state-sponsored attacks It isn’t just state-sponsored attackers that may try to cause disruption to enterprises. Unscrupulous competitors may also resort to espionage or sabotage in order to gain an advantage over rivals. But regardless of the entities behind the attacks, IoT devices are now also being exploited for these reasons. Protection Fortunately, there are various ways to mitigate IoT-focused attacks. These include: Adopting cellular network-based security. An emerging approach to enterprise IoT security is a cellular-based approach. Security providers can integrate with the mobile network operator's systems and create secure virtual networks. All communication from IoT devices are encrypted and routed through these networks where algorithms screen for and block threats. Part of the reason why malware have easily spread across is due to the proliferation of low-cost devices in the market. These devices, unfortunately, lack the necessary security features to prevent malware and hackers from hijacking them. Companies may be tempted to go cheap and opt for such devices. But, it would be wise for them to invest in devices that can be secured from manufacturers that provide sustained support. Investing in secure devices - Poor access management has also allowed attackers to easily hijack devices. Users often leave devices running using default access credentials. Attackers have tools and automated scripts that can readily take over such devices. These can be prevented by using secure credentials and avoiding password reuse. Applying stringent access management - Organizations must also ensure that the ways they retrieve and store data coming from IoT devices are kept secure. Security solutions such as breach prevention services are now available to comprehensively protect devices and servers against malicious traffic and hacking attempts. Comprehensive data protection - Proceeding with Caution Given how IoT has become the next big thing, it’s inevitable for more enterprises to try and take advantage of the hype. They should, however, be aware that investing in cutting edge technologies come with plenty of caveats and threats of cyberattacks are just among these risks. This said, these issues shouldn't entirely discourage companies from IoT. Connected devices have shown to benefit users including cost savings through efficient and automated operations and game-changing insights from big data generated by IoT. What is key is for companies to formulate strategies to mitigate IoT attacks and strengthen their security measures. This way, they can still enjoy the benefits of IoT adoption while minimizing their exposure to attacks.

Enterprise IoT Could Open Up Worrisome Attack Vectors

Taking a detailed look at the recent upward trend of FDA approvals for medical devices that use Artificial Intelligence ( ) as well as looking at culture shifts with respect to AI and healthcare in other parts of the world such as the EU, China, UK and Canada AI 2018 was a defining year for medical devices that utilize artificial intelligent algorithms. Even though medical devices have been using ‘software algorithms’ to help assist clinicians, 2018 saw the first FDA approved medical device that uses artificial intelligence and doesn't require a clinician to interpret the input. The last 6 months have seen an increase in FDA approvals and we can expect to see even more approvals. Verbiage used in some of these FDA approvals include ‘ ’, analyzing radio-logical images using machine learning algorithms to detect and diagnose fractures ‘ ’ Using artificial intelligence algorithms, the device is able to determine whether a patient has referable retinopathy IDx-DR and ‘ ’. The verbiage is clearly encouraging as these offer another layer that can help clinicians with decision support. device provides triage or notification that is informed by machine learning, artificial intelligence or other image analysis algorithms tools Equally though there is also the fear that AI will replace e providers, for example Silicon Valley-investor said that machines will substitute 80 percent of doctors in the future in a healthcare scene driven by entrepreneurs, not medical professionals, or when , the godfather of neural networks said that it is ‘ ’. In fact, in May 2017 the Professor of Radiology and Biomedical informatics at Stanford University, mentioned how he received an email from one of his students saying he was thinking about going into radiology but did not know whether it is a viable profession anymore healthcar Vinod Khosla Professor Geoffrey Hinton quite obvious that we should stop training radiologists as image perception algorithms are very soon going to be demonstrably better than humans The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), with support from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, asked JASON to consider how AI will shape the future of public health, community health, and health care delivery. is an independent group of elite scientists which advises the United States government on matters of science and technology, mostly of a sensitive nature. JASON is a reference to Jason, the mythical Greek hero who was the leader of the Argonauts. JASON Jason of the Argonauts The report states that the design of future health care information systems revolve around questions that need to be answered, one concerned with computer science and the other with fundamental biology. two The computer science question is_, whether an entire medical database can be created and used with the data maintained in a form accessible to human cognition, avoiding the cumbersome and costly translation from analog to digital._ The fundamental biology question is whether the natural coding of information in a human brain is basically analog and not digital. One known fact is a mathematical theorem proved by Marian Pour-El and Ian Richards in 1978. The theorem states that analog computing is in a precise mathematical sense more powerful than digital computing. Pour-El and Richards display a number that is computable with a simple analog device but not computable with any digital device as defined by Alan Turing in his famous paper, “ ’’ in 1937. On Computable Numbers . Their discovery gives us reason to hope that a new generation of computers operating as analog devices may give us databases more user-friendly to us than our present-day digital databases The second fact, supporting the view that the human brain operates as an analog device, is our subjective experience of perception and memory. We experience the visual operation of our brains as a rapid and effortless scanning of pictures moving in space and time. To our subjective view, the brain appears to be primarily a device for the direct comparison of images. We see the images as whole scenes with shape and style, not as collections of pixels. Our perception of continuously moving images does not prove that our brain is an analog device, but it makes this a plausible hypothesis. The question is why now? The truth is there was already a lot of innovative focus on developing AI medical solutions (whether effective or not), but lacked support from effective approval processes. FDA approvals basically mean that you can get paid for services rendered. There has also been a large amount of investment for example Healthcare organizations surveyed by said they planned to invest an average of $32.4 million over the next five years on artificial intelligence. Optum A number of factors are responsible: firstly the was signed into law on December 13, 2016 and was designed to help accelerate medical product development and bring new innovations and advances to patients who need them faster and more efficiently. More specifically the Act specifically exempted certain software products from the definition of ‘medical device’. 21st Century Cures Act (Cures Act) Secondly, Scott Gottlieb became FDA commissioner in May 2017 and under his leadership the FDA has made fighting the crisis of opioid addiction a top priority, advanced initiatives on addressing drug pricing, banned the sale of most flavored e-cigarettes in tens of thousands of convenience stores and gas stations across the country and is expected to propose a ban on menthol in regular cigarettes. He was named “ ” by Time magazine and ranked No 6 by Fortune Magazine's annual survey of the “The World’s 50 Greatest Leaders” in 2018. He also believes that machine learning can help advance healthcare. 50 People Transforming Healthcare in 2018 ‘ ’ Scott Gottlieb, M.D, FDA Commissioner One of the most promising digital health tools is Artificial Intelligence, particularly efforts that use machine learning. There have also been other notable non-AI based advances from the FDA this year such as the approval of 45 novel drugs and biologics which has been the most approved in more than 20 years. Clearly, the FDA is encouraging an environment of innovation. Equally important are the advances in the development of fast hardware Graphics Processor Units (GPUs) allowing for the training of much larger networks, the availability of large labeled datasets both of which have given rise to the ‘data-driven paradigm’ of Deep Learning (DL). Unlike previous eras of excitement over AI, the potential of AI advancement in health may make this era different because of the merging of the following three forces: 1) frustration with the legacy medical system, 2) ubiquity of networked smart devices in our society, 3) acclimation to convenience and at-home services like those provided through Amazon. But…what is Artificial Intelligence? Yes, this may be old news…but how does the US government describe AI? A report by the Executive Office of the President National Science and Technology Council Committee on Technology stated that And will today’s artificial intelligence still be tomorrow’s artificial intelligence? As software becomes increasingly capable, tasks considered as requiring “intelligence” are often removed from the definition, for example, optical character recognition is usually excluded from ‘artificial intelligence’ has become routine technology. This phenomenon is known as the AI effect, which can be described using Tesler’s Theorem “ ” “There is no single definition of AI that is universally accepted by practitioners. Some define AI loosely as a computerized system that exhibits behavior that is commonly thought of as requiring intelligence.” AI is whatever hasn’t been done yet. What does the rest of the world think about health and AI? EU The EU is also introducing new regulations that will apply as of May 26, 2020, s. This means that AI software that currently is excluded from being regulated as software medical devices under the existing regulatory regime, because they do not provide a treatment recommendation, but only a prediction of risk to or predisposition of a disease, may in the future be reclassified as medical devices. regulations that contain additional provisions that specifically address software medical devices. Of particular relevance, software with a medical purpose of “prediction and prognosis” will fall within the scope of the Regulation The European Commission outlines a $24 billion (€20 billion) investment between 2018 and 2020, with the expectation that those funds will come from public and private entities INVESTMENT: China On August 31, 2017, the State Food and Drug Administration (CFDA) released a new version of the “Medical Device Classification Catalog”, which came into effect on August 1, 2018. The original version of the catalog increased from 15 pages to more than 150 pages and the number of name examples increased six-fold to 6609, of which the proportion of medical imaging equipment increased significantly. . The CFDA has also added a specific category corresponding to artificial intelligence-assisted diagnosis, which is embodied in the catalog of analysis and processing of medical images and pathological images China is investing at least $7 billion through 2030, including $2 billion for a research park in Beijing. The Chinese government foresees a $150 billion AI industry at that time. INVESTMENT: UK The UK government announced earlier this year that it plans to invest millions of pounds of government funding to develop AI that is able to diagnose cancer and chronic disease before symptoms have developed, potentially saving 20,000 lives each year. Prime Minister Theresa May challenged health charities, the National Health Service (NHS) and the AI sector to pool data in order to transform the diagnosis of chronic diseases. In response to Theresa May’s challenge Jane Rendall, Managing Director of NHS imaging technology partner Sectra UK & Ireland, said: “ ” The NHS has practically unused archives of millions of diagnostic images that could become one of the most powerful clinical data sets in the world if artificial intelligence is used effectively. Our health service has a wealth of imaging data that it can use to start teaching machines how to recognize parts of the human anatomy, and more importantly, how to recognize abnormalities. The UK government’s ‘ ' published in May 2018 listed the following mission: Use data, Artificial Intelligence and innovation to transform the prevention, early diagnosis and treatment of chronic diseases by 2030. Grand Challenge Policy Paper UK announced a deal between private and public groups that would bring more than $200 million of AI investment into the country INVESTMENT: Canada In 2018 Canada introduced the ‘ ’ initiative, Health Canada established a new division within the Therapeutic Products Directorate’s Medical Devices Bureau to allow for a more targeted pre-market review of digital health technologies, to adapt to rapidly changing technologies in digital health, and to respond to fast innovation cycles. The initiative focuses on a number of key areas including AI. Regulatory Review of Drugs and Devices The Canadian government has committed $125 million to AI research INVESTMENT: List of US healthcare companies that have FDA approved AI medical devices Companies that got FDA approval for AI algorithms in 2018 The Role of the FDA The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) assures that patients and health care providers have timely and continued access to safe, effective, and high-quality medical devices. What is a medical device? A is any apparatus, appliance, software, material, or other article, whether used alone or in combination, including the software intended by its manufacturer to be used specifically for diagnostic and/or therapeutic purposes medical device Medical devices are classified into 3 classes based on the risk, Class I, Class II, or Class III, with Class I being the lowest risk and Class III the highest risk. 3% of devices are are not yet classified by the FDA. % Classification of FDA approved Devices (source: FDA.gov) The FDA regulates over different devices, which are manufactured by more than firms in more than medical device facilities worldwide. 190,000 18,000 21,000 Problems with the current process The FDA’s 510(k) approval process dates from 1976, The 510(k) pathway is the most commonly used premarket review process. In 2017, the FDA cleared 3,173 devices through the pathway, or 82 percent of all devices cleared or approved. Close to 20 percent of current 510(k) approvals are based on predicate devices that are more than 10 years old, a process that could be holding back medical device innovation. Under the 510(k) pathway, device manufacturers use comparative testing against predicate devices — devices already on the market — to show that a new device is as safe and effective as the predicate device. FDA Advances The FDA introduced the De Novo classification for new, novel devices whose type has previously not been classified. It’s for devices that would otherwise be classified into Class III, and provides a means to classify into Class I or II. The De Novo pathway provides a vehicle for establishing new predicates that can reflect modern standards for performance and safety and can serve as the basis for future clearances. As a result, we expect to see more developers take advantage of the De Novo pathway for novel devices. The future of AI in healthcare An Optum survey revealed that 91% of 500 US healthcare leaders said they expect to see a return on investment (ROI) for AI over the next few years. Hospital execs expect to see the ROI in four to five years, while health plans hope to see ROI in three years or less. 36% of respondents said they expect AI to improve patient experience, 33% think AI will decrease per-capita cost of care, and 31% believe AI will improve health outcomes. “Analytics isn’t the end, it’s the beginning — it’s what you do with the insights to drive care improvement and reduce administrative waste,” said Optum Enterprise Analytics SVP and COO Steve Griffiths. “For AI to successfully solve healthcare’s biggest challenges, organizations need to employ a unique combination of curated data, analytics and healthcare expertise.” Artificial intelligence in healthcare does present a whole new set of challenges around data privacy, security and ethics — challenges that are compounded by the fact that most algorithms need access to massive data sets for training and validation. These algorithms in some cases also ‘predict’ outcomes without the full knowledge of how the prediction was made. They are subject to bias and not fully transparent. This is leading to an emerging field of aims to create new AI methods that are accountable to human reasoning. explainable AI Balancing the risks and rewards of AI in healthcare will require collaborative effort from technology developers, regulators, end-users and consumers. Amrit Virdee Machine Learning Engineer | Health Informatics | Pharmacist | Mapping Medication. Some of my other posts: _Before any predictive ML models can be applied to a data set it is important to thoroughly understand the data. Using…_hackernoon.com Visualizing State Drug Utilization Data Sets _Experimenting with simple data augmentation parameters to get the best results_towardsdatascience.com Data Augmentation Experimentation References: _Source: Thinkstock - Healthcare organizations surveyed by Optum said they planned to invest an average of $32.4 million…_hitinfrastructure.com Healthcare Firms to Spend Average of $32M on Artificial Intelligence _In July, the Food and Drug Administration issued guidance on three topics important to the future of medical…_www.forbes.com Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, And The FDA _For the first time, the Food and Drug Administration has approved marketing a medical device that uses artificial…_www.modernhealthcare.com FDA grants first approval to autonomous AI-powered medical device _Remarks by Scott Gottlieb, M.D.Commissioner of Food and DrugsAcademy Health's 2018 Health DatapaloozaWashington…_www.fda.gov Transforming FDA's Approach to Digital Health _Eighty years ago today, President Roosevelt signed the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act ("FD&C Act"). In…_www.healthlawadvisor.com 21st Century Cures Act | Health Law Advisor _Machines will replace 80 percent of doctors in a healthcare future that will be driven by entrepreneurs, not medical…_www.wired.co.uk Vinod Khosla: Machines will replace 80 percent of doctors _Hype and fears surround artificial intelligence taking jobs in healthcare. Will it render physicians obsolete? Will it…_medicalfuturist.com 5 Reasons Why Artificial Intelligence Won't Replace Physicians - The Medical Futurist _The UK government has announced plans to invest millions of pounds of government funding to develop AI that is able to…_thejournalofmhealth-com.cdn.ampproject.org UK to Invest Millions in Healthcare AI _The Industrial Strategy sets out Grand Challenges to put the UK at the forefront of the industries of the future. As…_www.gov.uk The Grand Challenge missions _The United States and China currently dominate the world of artificial intelligence, but used very different approaches…_qz.com AI is the new space race. Here's what the biggest countries are doing

AI & the FDA

Yes. This is Spider Man. You may wondering what he is doing here, in an article about programing, about patterns and other computer-science related marketing bullshit. So, he just wants you to recall one thing: With great power comes great responsibility Which powers? Lets enumerate we do have: powers — Functions — Classes — Variables Nothing more. And these are not , these are . powers elements And you can use that elements to create powerful spells in a different forms: — FP — FRP — OOP — imperative style — anything else Thats the secret — “Favor object composition over class inheritance” does not means “classes are sux, function rules!”, or ”there is not other way that FP”. That means —”With great power comes great responsibility”, and you have to handle everything with a care. Or magic powers will burn you. Lets start from the beginning. I deside to write this article after tating at `s the series_._ medium Eric Elliott “Composing Software” Let me first hightlight some articles, which I highly recomend you to read first: _Note: This is part 1 of the “Composing Software” series on learning functional programming and compositional software…_medium.com The Rise and Fall and Rise of Functional Programming (Composing Software) _Note: This is the introduction to the “Composing Software” series on learning functional programming and compositional…_medium.com Composing Software: An Introduction _FP vs OOP is a false dichotomy._medium.com It sounds like you’re talking about architecture. They all are very very interesting but we will try to dig from another point of view. Lets start from the very beginning. In the beginning of computer science, before most of computer science was actually done on computers, there lived two great computer scientists: Alonzo Church, and Alan Turing. They produced two different, but equivalent universal models of computation. that can be computed (hence, “universal”). Both models could compute anything Alonzo Church invented lambda calculus. Lambda calculus is a universal model of computation based on function application. Alan Turing is known for the turing machine. A turing machine is a universal model of computation that defines a theoretical device that manipulates symbols on a strip of tape. Together, they collaborated to show that lambda calculus and the turing machine are functionally . equivalent — The Rise and Fall and Rise of Functional Programming Step by step. And now you may found a inside any digital signal , and even programming . turing machine processor imperative style This is how turing works — step by step. Flow. Lambda calculus working in a different manner. Program is a endless thought inputs and output. Thought pipes. flow And a some value in a some point is a combination of inputs and outputs. Only. Pure math. Pure functions. And lambda creates a world of analog devices. From now please treat as turing “TODO list”, and functional style as lambda “vacuum lamp”. imperative style And do not forget — . And all FP code you may write will be compiled to bytecode and executed in a turing machine. But that turing machine will physically runs on analog atoms of CPU module. they are equal This is endless. The Rise of Functional Programming I hope you know, but first computer were analog. And first devices were analog. And near to all modern military or space devices are still analog. Long story short, but my father was a programer, and actually he had launched rockets to the sky. In a real, not like Google do. And one day I asked him — “What were you doing at work”. He replied: “I was told to build analog schemes with self testing mechanics”. I asked again: “Analog? But why? You should use normal digital processing!” And got an answer: “Cos . Nothing can change the way “program” work. Rewire it. Nor exeption, Nor radiation, Nor Americans”. static wiring is resistant to any changes Let me rephrase: With a functional approach you will get more testable, maintainable and predictable code. But, as long functional approach is to imperative — you can use imperative style inside functional block. functionally equivalent Just because this is not a programing approach, but architecture. If you build your application from an isolated blocks, connected to each other via — you will get something like microscheme, like a analog device. And each element is a black-box. No mater that lays inside. functional pipes The Fall of Functional Programming So, 30 years later computers evolve a bit, and digital era begins. Brand new CPUs enables every one to use high level languages, and.. One use that great power without great responsibility. New languages were new, they were fast, they were build to handle new CPUs, they change the world. But they werent designed well to handle old functional style like Lisp can handle. Ok, any reason why you should support some old crapy shit/shitty crap? And if now someone asks me — what do you prefer Lisp, Closure or Java — I will chose Java (ok, I will chose JavaScript). Our fathers do the same. And functional programing had fallen. Today. And then someone invent classes and OOP. In 1966. And 30 years later one of “fathers” of OOP said: Actually I made up the term “ ”, and I can tell you I did not have in mind. — Alan Kay. object-oriented C++ So “classes” and “OOP” in C++, Java, JavaScript — are not “classes” or “OOP”. And they are “NOT” only in Alans “meaning”. Like: you are not a man, you are not a lady, you know nothing Jon Snow. This is just a names. And they can differs from language to languare. And if Alan did not treat modern classes as classes — that does not mean that modern classes are bad, or even “not a real classes”. It is an open question why he awaits for 30 years, and why computer science could not evolve by its own way and must stay in some limits. Not today. But Gang of Four said “Favor object composition over class inheritance” not today. They did it 20 years ago. And, if you read a book, you may remember why they said so. And now, please, try to understand next: People, who invent and implement OOP and classes were VERY smart people. Smarter than you. They actually can handle the power of OOP, and had NO issues with it. Unfortunately you are dumb, or just not as smart as founders, or just do not use . BDUF And even, if you are smart, have a lot of time for BDUF and etc — someone you might be not. after BDUF — Big Design Up Front As internet said: This is a relic from the waterfall era before everyone became cool and Agile. This acronym is here to remind us not get over carried with super complex architecture. We shouldn’t spend 3 months designing our application before even writing the first line of code. Start small and iterate. You will NOT have any problems on well designed system, and can just ignore any articles and advices. They all for others, not such pretty designed, ones. All advices, books and patterns, tests and best practices aimed to solve only one issue: Help to build and maintain NOT well designed systems. Help someone after you maintain your code. Force someone before you, to leave code you will understand and accept. Helps work as and in a team. And, in case of any friction, you will not get well designed system. And, in my experience — even if you will design a — in few years you can realize - . well designed system it was not PS: JFYI, most of application does not live so long. The answer. But I still did not provide an information about why “Favor object composition over class inheritance” is misunderstand. Let me once again post a phrase by Eric Elliott FP vs OOP is a false dichotomy. And I can say: Object composition over vs class inheritance is like a micro vs soft. There is nothing similar between composition and inheritance. They both can do different things in a different ways. They both gives you a power. It is up to you how to use it. You can create an object, which will compose functionality from other objects, and next use inheritance to modify it behavior. Or you can create a static wiring scheme, and use inheritance to modify behavior of atoms. Let me cite Eric one more (last!) time I was told that software development is “the act of breaking a complex problem down into smaller problems, and composing simple solutions to form a complete solution to the complex problem.” One of my biggest regrets in life is that I failed to understand the significance of that lesson early on. Object . The greedy way to break complex problem to smaller and doable ones. composition — is an artitecture Class . A building block. A saw. inheritance — is a tool And most of problems of class inheritance has roots in uncompleted decomposition. Just think about — if you can achieve perfect results without using advanced tools — what can you do with it? The last trap The last trap is the hardest one. If you used inheritance “too much” — you will . It will be hard to “unentangle” then the time comes. entangle you code If you used decomposition “too much” — you will also entangle you code. It will hard to find the way thought threads between small-small-small atomic components build with a “single responsibility principle”. You have to think about tiers, inputs and outputs, slots and signals, blocks, and trying to build whole application using standalone black boxes. ! Divide and Conquer But Always keep in mind — you are not alone, someone (may be you) have to support your code, someone (may be you) may change you code. Programing languages aimed to help you. And me. And Bob. They often provide more power that you should use. It is up to you how to write usable and testable code. But you can combine different technics from different approaches. You just can do it. No one can stop you. Expect Responsibility. All magic comes with a price. PS: CSS! Atomic CSS! Functional CSS! BEM! — that is the real battle area….

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